Cambios en la distribución altitudinal de las aves de Río Macho, Cartago, Costa Rica

Oscar Ramírez-Alán; Roberto Vargas-Masís; Roberto A. Cordero

doi:10.56178/eh.v30i2.583

Articles Published 01 December 2015 https://doi.org/10.56178/eh.v30i2.583

Changes in the altitudinal distribution of birds in Río Macho, Cartago, Costa Rica

altitudinal distribution climate change Costa Rica

Oscar Ramírez-Alán Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional. Aptdo 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica

Roberto Vargas-Masís Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional. Aptdo 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica. | Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Universidad Estatal a Distancia. San José, Costa Rica

Roberto A. Cordero Laboratorio de Ecología Funcional y Ecosistemas Tropicales (LEFET), Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional. Heredia, Costa Rica

Abstract

Birds have a high potential as indicators of the effects of climate change, because they are easy to observe and monitoring. Previous studies on the effect of climate change on birds showed that there are significant variations in the distribution of species. Our objective was to evaluate changes in the elevational distribution of the avifauna in Río Macho, Cartago, Costa Rica. We used point counts, transects, mist nets, acoustic recordings and observations in order to record the local avifauna. The maximum elevation previously reported for these species was compared with elevations recorded during this study. We recorded 197 species, and 14.8% of them were observed at a higher elevation than the maximum previously reported. Species inhabiting higher elevations have a greater extinction risk because they cannot move to upper areas. Therefore, we must advance strategies in order to maintain viable populations for endemic species in higher elevations.

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References

BÊTY J, GIROUX JF Y GAUTHIER G (2004) Individualvariation in timing of migration: causes and repro-ductive consequences in greater snow geese (Ansercaerulescens atlanticus). Behavioral Ecology andSociobiology 57:1–8
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL (2014) Data zone. BirdLifeInternational, Cambridge (URL: http://datazone.birdlife.org/home)
BOTH C, BOUWHUIS S, LESSELLS CM Y VISSER ME (2006)Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird. Nature 441:81–83
BOYLE WA (2008) Can variation in risk of nest preda-tion explain altitudinal migration in tropical birds?Oecologia 155:397–403
BUERMANN W, CHAVES JA, DUDLEY R, MCGUIRE JA,SMITH TB Y ALTSHULER DL (2011) Projected changesin elevational distribution and flight performanceof montane Neotropical hummingbirds in responseto climate change. Global Change Biology 17:1671–1680
BULLUCK L, BUEHLER D, VALLENDER R Y ROBERTSON JR(2013) Demographic comparison of Golden-WingedWarbler (Vermivora chrysoptera) populations innorthern and southern extremes of their breedingrange. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 125:479–490
CHAVES-CAMPOS J (2004) Elevational movements oflarge frugivorous birds and temporal variation inabundance of fruits along an elevational gradient.Ornitología Neotropical 15:433–445
COLWELL RK, BREHM G, CARDELUS CL, GILMAN AC YLONGINO JT (2008) Global warming, elevationalrange shifts, and lowland biotic attrition in the wettropics. Science 322:258–261CRICK HPQ (2004) The impact of climate change onbirds. Ibis 146:48–56
DEVICTOR V, VA N SWAAY C, BRERETON T, BROTONS L,CHAMBERLAIN D, HELIÖLÄ J, HERRANDO S, JULLIARDR, KUUSSAARI M, LINDSTRÖM Å, REIF J, ROY DB,SCHWEIGER O, SETTELE J, STEFANESCU C, VA N STRIENA, VA N TURNHOUT C, VERMOUZEK Z, WALLISDE VRIESM, WYNHOFF I Y JIGUET F (2012) Differences in theclimatic debts of birds and butterflies at a continen-tal scale. Nature Climate Change 2:121–124
FEELEY K Y SILMAN M (2010) Land-use and climatechange effects on population size and extinction riskof Andean plants. Global Change Biology 16:3215–3222
FERIA-ARROYO TP, SÁNCHEZ-ROJAS G, ORTIZ-PULIDO R,BRAVO-CADENA J, CALIXTO-PÉREZ E, DALE JM,DUBERSTEIN JN, LLOLDI-RANGEL P, LARA C Y VALEN-CIA-HERVERTH J (2013) Estudio del cambio climáticoy su efecto en las aves en México: enfoques actua-les y perspectivas futuras. Huitzil 14:47–55
FODEN WB, BUTCHART SHM, STUART SN, VIE JC,AKÇAKAYA HR, ANGULO A, LYNDON D, GUTSCHE A,TURAK E, CAO L, DONNER S, KATARIYA V, BERNARD R YMACE G (2013) Identifying the World’s most climatechange vulnerable species: a systematic trait-basedassessment of all birds, amphibians and corals. PLoSOne 8:e65427
FULLER T, BENSCH S, MÜLLER I, NOVEMBRE J, PÉREZ-TRISJ, RICKLEFS RE, SMITH TB Y WALDENSTRÖM J (2012)The ecology of emerging infectious diseases in migra-tory birds: an assessment of the role of climate changeand priorities for future research. Ecohealth 9:80–88
GARRIGUES R Y DEAN R (2007) The birds of Costa Rica: afield guide. Comstock, Ithaca
GASNER MR, JANKOWSKI JE, CIECKA AL, KYLE KO YRABENOLD KN (2010) Projecting the local impacts ofclimate change on a Central American montaneavian community. Biological Conservation 143:1250–1258
GUNNARSSON TG, GILL JA, ATKINSON PW, GÉLINAUD G,POTTS PM, CROGER RE, GUDMUNDSSON GA, APPLE-TON GF Y SUTHERLAND WJ (2006) Population-scaledrivers of individual arrival times in migratorybirds. Journal of Animal Ecology 75:1119–1127
HITCH AT Y LEBERG PL (2007) Breeding distributionsof North American bird species moving north as aresult of climate change. Conservation Biology21:534–539
HOLDRIDGE LR (1967) Life zone ecology. Edición revi-sada. Tropical Science Center, San José
KAPELLE M, CASTRO M, ACEVEDO H, GONZÁLEZ L YMONGE H (2002) Ecosistemas del Área de Conserva-ción Osa (Acosa). Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad,Heredia
LANG I, GORMLEY LHL, HARVEY CA Y SINCLAIR FL(2003) Composición de la comunidad de aves encercas vivas de Río Frío, Costa Rica. Agroforesteríaen las Américas 10:39–40
LAWTON RO, NAIR US, PIELKE RA Y WELCH RM (2001)Climatic impact of tropical lowland deforestationon nearby montane cloud forests. Science 294:584–587
LOISELLE BA Y BLAKE JG (1991) Temporal variation inbirds and fruits along an elevational gradient inCosta Rica. Ecology 72:180–193
MARINI MA, BARBET-MASSIN M, ESTEVES-LÓPEZ L YJIGUET F (2009) Predicted climate-driven bird distri-bution changes and forecasted conservation con-flicts in a Neotropical savanna. Conservation Biology23:1558–1567
MARTÍN JL, BETHENCOURT J Y CUEVAS-AGULLÓ E (2012)Assessment of global warming on the island of Tene-rife, Canary Islands (Spain). Trends in minimum,maximum and mean temperatures since 1944. Cli-matic Change 114:343–355
MØLLER AP, MERINO S, SOLER JJ, ANTONOV A, BADÁSEP, CALERO-TORRALBO MA, DE LOPE F, EEVA T,FIGUEROLA J, FLENSTED-JENSEN E, GARAMSZEGI LZ,GONZÁLEZ-BRAOJOS S, GWINNER H, HANSSEN SA,HEYLEN D, ILMONEN P, KLARBORG K, KORPIMÄKI E,MARTÍNEZ J, MARTÍNEZ-DELA PUENTE J, MARZAL A,MATTHYSEN E, MATYJASIAK, P, MOLINA-MORALES M,MORENO J, MOUSSEAU TA, NIELSEN JT, PAP PL, RIVERO-DE AGUILAR J, SHURULINKOV P, SLAGSVOLD T, SZÉP T,SZÖLLÓSI E, TÖRÖK J, VACLAV R, VALERA F Y ZIANE N(2013) Assessing the effects of climate on host-para-site interactions: a comparative study of Europeanbirds and their parasites. PLoS One 8:e82886
OBANDO-CALDERÓN G, CHAVES-CAMPOS J, GARRIGUESR, MONTOYA M, RAMÍREZ O Y ZOOK J (2013) Listaoficial de las aves de Costa Rica. Actualización 2013.Zeledonia 17:44–59
OPLER PA, FRANKIE GW Y BAKER HG (1980) Compara-tive phenological studies of treelet and shrubspecies in tropical wet and dry forests in the low-lands of Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology 167–188
ORTIZ-MALAVASSI E (2014) Atlas digital de Costa Rica2014. Escuela de Ingeniería Forestal, Instituto Tecno-lógico de Costa Rica, Cartago
PEH KSH (2007) Potential effects of climate changeon elevational distributions of tropical birds insoutheast Asia. Condor 109:437–441
PÉREZ-MOLINA JP Y CORDERO SOLÓRZANO RA (2012)Recuperación de tres coberturas forestales de alturamedia en Costa Rica: análisis de los oligoquetos, elmantillo y suelo. Revista de Biología Tropical60:1431–1443
RAMÍREZ-ALÁN OA (2008) Uso de hábitat, abundan-cia relativa del quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinnocostaricensis) y análisis de paisaje en el sector VolcánBarva, Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo, Costa Rica.Mesoamericana 12:21–32
RAY DK, NAIR US, LAWTON RO, WELCH RM Y PIELKERA (2006) Impact of land use on Costa Rican tropicalmontane cloud forests: sensitivity of orographiccloud formation to deforestation in the plains.Journal of Geophysical Research. Atmospheres111:1984–2012
RIBA-HERNÁNDEZ P (1996) Notas sobre los murciéla-gos de la Estación Biológica Río Macho, Costa Rica.Brenesia 45:183–186
ROOT TL, PRICE JT, HALL KR, SCHNEIDER SH, ROSENZ-WEIGK C Y POUNDS JA (2003) Fingerprints of globalwarming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421:57–60
SALA OE, CHAPIN III FS, ARMESTO JJ, BERLOW R, BLOOM-FIELD J, DIRZO R, HUBER-SANWALD E, HUENNEKE LF,JACKSON RB, KINZIG A, LEEMANS R, LODGE D, MOONEYHA, OESTERHELD M, POFF ML, SYKES MT, WALKER BH,WALKER M Y WALL DH (2000) Global biodiversityscenarios for the year 2100. Science 287:1770–1774
SAYRE R, ROCA E, SIDAGHATKISSH G, YOUNG B, KEEL S,ROCA R Y SHEPPARD S (2002) Un enfoque en la natura-leza. Evaluaciones ecológicas rápidas. The NatureConservancy, Arlington
SEKERCIOGLU ÇH, PRIMACK RB Y WORMWORTH J (2012)The effects of climate change on tropical birds. Bio-logical Conservation 148:1–18
SEKERCIOGLU ÇH, SCHNEIDER SH, FAY JP Y LOARIE SR(2008) Climate change, elevational range shifts andbird extinctions. Conservation Biology 22:140–150
SHOO LP, WILLIAMS SE Y HERO JM (2005) Climatewarming and the rainforest birds of the Australianwet tropics: using abundance data as a sensitivepredictor of change in total population size. Biolo-gical Conservation 125:335–343
SOLÓRZANO S, CASTILLO S, VALVERDE T Y ÍVILA L (2000)Quetzal abundance in relation to fruit availabilityin a cloud forest in southeastern Mexico. Biotropica32:523–532
STILES FG (1983) Birds. Pp. 502-530 en: JANZEN DH(ed) Costa Rican natural history. University of ChicagoPress, Chicago
STILES FG (2008) Ecomorphology and phylogeny ofhummingbirds: divergence and convergence inadaptations to high elevations. Ornitología Neo-tropical 19:511–519
STILES FG Y SKUTCH AF (2007) Guía de aves de CostaRica. Cuarta edición. Instituto Nacional de Bio-diversidad, Heredia
STILL CJ, FOSTER PN Y SCHNEIDER SH (1999) Simulat-ing the effects of climate change on tropicalmontane cloud forests. Nature 398:608–610
SVENSSON E Y NILSSON JA (1995) Food-supply, terri-tory quality and reproductive timing in the blue tit(Parus caeruleus). Ecology 76:1804–1812
TANKERSLEY R JRY ORVIS K (2003) Modeling the geog-raphy of migratory pathways and stopover habi-tats for neotropical migratory birds. ConservationEcology 7:e7
TNC-INBIO (2006) Revisión de los objetos de conserva-ción y análisis de integridad ecológica del sitio Tapantí-Macizo de la Muerte, Costa Rica. Instituto Nacionalde Biodiversidad, San José
WIENS JA (1995) Habitat fragmentation: island vs.landscape perspectives on bird conservation. Ibis137 (Suppl):97–104
WOODCOCK J Y WOODCOCK M (2007) Diversidad deespecies, fidelidad al sitio de migración, y ecologíade aves migratorias terrestres en los manglares deCosta Rica. Zeledonia 11:2–13

How to cite

Oscar Ramírez-Alán, Roberto Vargas-Masís, Roberto A. Cordero (2015). Changes in the altitudinal distribution of birds in Río Macho, Cartago, Costa Rica. El Hornero, Vol. 30 No. 2 (2015), 55-61. https://doi.org/10.56178/eh.v30i2.583

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[1] BÊTY J, GIROUX JF Y GAUTHIER G (2004) Individualvariation in timing of migration: causes and repro-ductive consequences in greater snow geese (Ansercaerulescens atlanticus). Behavioral Ecology andSociobiology 57:1–8

[2] BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL (2014) Data zone. BirdLifeInternational, Cambridge (URL: http://datazone.birdlife.org/home)

[3] BOTH C, BOUWHUIS S, LESSELLS CM Y VISSER ME (2006)Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird. Nature 441:81–83

[4] BOYLE WA (2008) Can variation in risk of nest preda-tion explain altitudinal migration in tropical birds?Oecologia 155:397–403

[5] BUERMANN W, CHAVES JA, DUDLEY R, MCGUIRE JA,SMITH TB Y ALTSHULER DL (2011) Projected changesin elevational distribution and flight performanceof montane Neotropical hummingbirds in responseto climate change. Global Change Biology 17:1671–1680

[6] BULLUCK L, BUEHLER D, VALLENDER R Y ROBERTSON JR(2013) Demographic comparison of Golden-WingedWarbler (Vermivora chrysoptera) populations innorthern and southern extremes of their breedingrange. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 125:479–490

[7] CHAVES-CAMPOS J (2004) Elevational movements oflarge frugivorous birds and temporal variation inabundance of fruits along an elevational gradient.Ornitología Neotropical 15:433–445

[8] COLWELL RK, BREHM G, CARDELUS CL, GILMAN AC YLONGINO JT (2008) Global warming, elevationalrange shifts, and lowland biotic attrition in the wettropics. Science 322:258–261CRICK HPQ (2004) The impact of climate change onbirds. Ibis 146:48–56

[9] DEVICTOR V, VA N SWAAY C, BRERETON T, BROTONS L,CHAMBERLAIN D, HELIÖLÄ J, HERRANDO S, JULLIARDR, KUUSSAARI M, LINDSTRÖM Å, REIF J, ROY DB,SCHWEIGER O, SETTELE J, STEFANESCU C, VA N STRIENA, VA N TURNHOUT C, VERMOUZEK Z, WALLISDE VRIESM, WYNHOFF I Y JIGUET F (2012) Differences in theclimatic debts of birds and butterflies at a continen-tal scale. Nature Climate Change 2:121–124

[10] FEELEY K Y SILMAN M (2010) Land-use and climatechange effects on population size and extinction riskof Andean plants. Global Change Biology 16:3215–3222

[11] FERIA-ARROYO TP, SÁNCHEZ-ROJAS G, ORTIZ-PULIDO R,BRAVO-CADENA J, CALIXTO-PÉREZ E, DALE JM,DUBERSTEIN JN, LLOLDI-RANGEL P, LARA C Y VALEN-CIA-HERVERTH J (2013) Estudio del cambio climáticoy su efecto en las aves en México: enfoques actua-les y perspectivas futuras. Huitzil 14:47–55

[12] FODEN WB, BUTCHART SHM, STUART SN, VIE JC,AKÇAKAYA HR, ANGULO A, LYNDON D, GUTSCHE A,TURAK E, CAO L, DONNER S, KATARIYA V, BERNARD R YMACE G (2013) Identifying the World’s most climatechange vulnerable species: a systematic trait-basedassessment of all birds, amphibians and corals. PLoSOne 8:e65427

[13] FULLER T, BENSCH S, MÜLLER I, NOVEMBRE J, PÉREZ-TRISJ, RICKLEFS RE, SMITH TB Y WALDENSTRÖM J (2012)The ecology of emerging infectious diseases in migra-tory birds: an assessment of the role of climate changeand priorities for future research. Ecohealth 9:80–88

[14] GARRIGUES R Y DEAN R (2007) The birds of Costa Rica: afield guide. Comstock, Ithaca

[15] GASNER MR, JANKOWSKI JE, CIECKA AL, KYLE KO YRABENOLD KN (2010) Projecting the local impacts ofclimate change on a Central American montaneavian community. Biological Conservation 143:1250–1258

[16] GUNNARSSON TG, GILL JA, ATKINSON PW, GÉLINAUD G,POTTS PM, CROGER RE, GUDMUNDSSON GA, APPLE-TON GF Y SUTHERLAND WJ (2006) Population-scaledrivers of individual arrival times in migratorybirds. Journal of Animal Ecology 75:1119–1127

[17] HITCH AT Y LEBERG PL (2007) Breeding distributionsof North American bird species moving north as aresult of climate change. Conservation Biology21:534–539

[18] HOLDRIDGE LR (1967) Life zone ecology. Edición revi-sada. Tropical Science Center, San José

[19] KAPELLE M, CASTRO M, ACEVEDO H, GONZÁLEZ L YMONGE H (2002) Ecosistemas del Área de Conserva-ción Osa (Acosa). Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad,Heredia

[20] LANG I, GORMLEY LHL, HARVEY CA Y SINCLAIR FL(2003) Composición de la comunidad de aves encercas vivas de Río Frío, Costa Rica. Agroforesteríaen las Américas 10:39–40

[21] LAWTON RO, NAIR US, PIELKE RA Y WELCH RM (2001)Climatic impact of tropical lowland deforestationon nearby montane cloud forests. Science 294:584–587

[22] LOISELLE BA Y BLAKE JG (1991) Temporal variation inbirds and fruits along an elevational gradient inCosta Rica. Ecology 72:180–193

[23] MARINI MA, BARBET-MASSIN M, ESTEVES-LÓPEZ L YJIGUET F (2009) Predicted climate-driven bird distri-bution changes and forecasted conservation con-flicts in a Neotropical savanna. Conservation Biology23:1558–1567

[24] MARTÍN JL, BETHENCOURT J Y CUEVAS-AGULLÓ E (2012)Assessment of global warming on the island of Tene-rife, Canary Islands (Spain). Trends in minimum,maximum and mean temperatures since 1944. Cli-matic Change 114:343–355

[25] MØLLER AP, MERINO S, SOLER JJ, ANTONOV A, BADÁSEP, CALERO-TORRALBO MA, DE LOPE F, EEVA T,FIGUEROLA J, FLENSTED-JENSEN E, GARAMSZEGI LZ,GONZÁLEZ-BRAOJOS S, GWINNER H, HANSSEN SA,HEYLEN D, ILMONEN P, KLARBORG K, KORPIMÄKI E,MARTÍNEZ J, MARTÍNEZ-DELA PUENTE J, MARZAL A,MATTHYSEN E, MATYJASIAK, P, MOLINA-MORALES M,MORENO J, MOUSSEAU TA, NIELSEN JT, PAP PL, RIVERO-DE AGUILAR J, SHURULINKOV P, SLAGSVOLD T, SZÉP T,SZÖLLÓSI E, TÖRÖK J, VACLAV R, VALERA F Y ZIANE N(2013) Assessing the effects of climate on host-para-site interactions: a comparative study of Europeanbirds and their parasites. PLoS One 8:e82886

[26] OBANDO-CALDERÓN G, CHAVES-CAMPOS J, GARRIGUESR, MONTOYA M, RAMÍREZ O Y ZOOK J (2013) Listaoficial de las aves de Costa Rica. Actualización 2013.Zeledonia 17:44–59

[27] OPLER PA, FRANKIE GW Y BAKER HG (1980) Compara-tive phenological studies of treelet and shrubspecies in tropical wet and dry forests in the low-lands of Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology 167–188

[28] ORTIZ-MALAVASSI E (2014) Atlas digital de Costa Rica2014. Escuela de Ingeniería Forestal, Instituto Tecno-lógico de Costa Rica, Cartago

[29] PEH KSH (2007) Potential effects of climate changeon elevational distributions of tropical birds insoutheast Asia. Condor 109:437–441

[30] PÉREZ-MOLINA JP Y CORDERO SOLÓRZANO RA (2012)Recuperación de tres coberturas forestales de alturamedia en Costa Rica: análisis de los oligoquetos, elmantillo y suelo. Revista de Biología Tropical60:1431–1443

[31] RAMÍREZ-ALÁN OA (2008) Uso de hábitat, abundan-cia relativa del quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinnocostaricensis) y análisis de paisaje en el sector VolcánBarva, Parque Nacional Braulio Carrillo, Costa Rica.Mesoamericana 12:21–32

[32] RAY DK, NAIR US, LAWTON RO, WELCH RM Y PIELKERA (2006) Impact of land use on Costa Rican tropicalmontane cloud forests: sensitivity of orographiccloud formation to deforestation in the plains.Journal of Geophysical Research. Atmospheres111:1984–2012

[33] RIBA-HERNÁNDEZ P (1996) Notas sobre los murciéla-gos de la Estación Biológica Río Macho, Costa Rica.Brenesia 45:183–186

[34] ROOT TL, PRICE JT, HALL KR, SCHNEIDER SH, ROSENZ-WEIGK C Y POUNDS JA (2003) Fingerprints of globalwarming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421:57–60

[35] SALA OE, CHAPIN III FS, ARMESTO JJ, BERLOW R, BLOOM-FIELD J, DIRZO R, HUBER-SANWALD E, HUENNEKE LF,JACKSON RB, KINZIG A, LEEMANS R, LODGE D, MOONEYHA, OESTERHELD M, POFF ML, SYKES MT, WALKER BH,WALKER M Y WALL DH (2000) Global biodiversityscenarios for the year 2100. Science 287:1770–1774

[36] SAYRE R, ROCA E, SIDAGHATKISSH G, YOUNG B, KEEL S,ROCA R Y SHEPPARD S (2002) Un enfoque en la natura-leza. Evaluaciones ecológicas rápidas. The NatureConservancy, Arlington

[37] SEKERCIOGLU ÇH, PRIMACK RB Y WORMWORTH J (2012)The effects of climate change on tropical birds. Bio-logical Conservation 148:1–18

[38] SEKERCIOGLU ÇH, SCHNEIDER SH, FAY JP Y LOARIE SR(2008) Climate change, elevational range shifts andbird extinctions. Conservation Biology 22:140–150

[39] SHOO LP, WILLIAMS SE Y HERO JM (2005) Climatewarming and the rainforest birds of the Australianwet tropics: using abundance data as a sensitivepredictor of change in total population size. Biolo-gical Conservation 125:335–343

[40] SOLÓRZANO S, CASTILLO S, VALVERDE T Y ÍVILA L (2000)Quetzal abundance in relation to fruit availabilityin a cloud forest in southeastern Mexico. Biotropica32:523–532

[41] STILES FG (1983) Birds. Pp. 502-530 en: JANZEN DH(ed) Costa Rican natural history. University of ChicagoPress, Chicago

[42] STILES FG (2008) Ecomorphology and phylogeny ofhummingbirds: divergence and convergence inadaptations to high elevations. Ornitología Neo-tropical 19:511–519

[43] STILES FG Y SKUTCH AF (2007) Guía de aves de CostaRica. Cuarta edición. Instituto Nacional de Bio-diversidad, Heredia

[44] STILL CJ, FOSTER PN Y SCHNEIDER SH (1999) Simulat-ing the effects of climate change on tropicalmontane cloud forests. Nature 398:608–610

[45] SVENSSON E Y NILSSON JA (1995) Food-supply, terri-tory quality and reproductive timing in the blue tit(Parus caeruleus). Ecology 76:1804–1812

[46] TANKERSLEY R JRY ORVIS K (2003) Modeling the geog-raphy of migratory pathways and stopover habi-tats for neotropical migratory birds. ConservationEcology 7:e7

[47] TNC-INBIO (2006) Revisión de los objetos de conserva-ción y análisis de integridad ecológica del sitio Tapantí-Macizo de la Muerte, Costa Rica. Instituto Nacionalde Biodiversidad, San José

[48] WIENS JA (1995) Habitat fragmentation: island vs.landscape perspectives on bird conservation. Ibis137 (Suppl):97–104

[49] WOODCOCK J Y WOODCOCK M (2007) Diversidad deespecies, fidelidad al sitio de migración, y ecologíade aves migratorias terrestres en los manglares deCosta Rica. Zeledonia 11:2–13